Unit 4 · Functions

A function is the reason why we communicate: what we say has a purpose, and functions describe how language is used rather than its grammar or lexis. The language used to express a function is called an exponent, and exponents vary in formality and appropriacy according to the context.

◆What is a function?

A functionThe reason why we communicate, e.g. apologising, inviting or requesting; the purpose of an utterance. click to keep open · see glossary is a reason why we communicate. Every time we speak or write, we do so for a reason. What we say has a purpose or function. Here are some examples of functions: apologising, greeting, clarifying, inviting, advising, agreeing, disagreeing, refusing, thanking, interrupting, expressing obligation, expressing preferences.

We can describe language itself in terms of its grammar or its lexisIndividual words or sets of words, e.g. homework, study, whiteboard, get dressed, be on time. Lexical means connected with words or sets of words. See lexical approach, lexical set, lexical unit. click to keep open · see glossary. Functions are a way of describing how we use language. When we describe the functions of language we focus on the use of the language and its meaning for the people who are in the context1. The situation in which language is used or presented; e.g. a story about a holiday experience could be used as the context to present and practise past tenses. Photographs can help to provide a context for a magazine article. 2. The words or phrases before … click to keep open · see glossary where it is used.

◆Key concepts — what is an exponent?

Look at this table. What do you think an ‘exponent’ is?

The language we use to express a function is called an exponentAn example of a grammar point, function or lexical set; e.g. Can you open the window, please? is an exponent for making requests. click to keep open · see glossary. The sentences in the middle column in the table above are examples of exponents. In the third column, the functions are underlined. You can see from the table that we use the -ing forms of verbs (e.g. suggesting, asking) to name functions. The words after the function in the third column are not the function. They are the specific topics that the functions refer to in these contexts.

An exponent can express different functions at the same time. It all depends on the context it is used in. For example, think of the exponent ‘I’m so tired’. This could be an exponent of the function of describing feelings. But who is saying it? Who is he/she saying it to? Where is he/she saying it?, i.e. what is the context in which it is being said? Imagine saying ‘I’m so tired’ in the following different contexts:

One exponent can express several different functions because its function depends on the context. One function can also be expressed through different exponents. Here are six different exponents of inviting someone to lunch. In what different situations would you use them?

◆Levels of formality, appropriacy and register

These exponents express different levels of formality, i.e. more or less relaxed ways of saying things. Generally speaking, formal (more socially distant) language is used in more official and important situations amongst people who do not know each other very well. Informal (more socially casual) language often occurs in relaxed situations, amongst friends, people who know each other well or treat each other in a relaxed way. Informal exponents are sometimes colloquialLanguage normally used in informal conversation but not in formal speech or writing, e.g. Give Gran a ring, OK? click to keep open · see glossary, i.e. very casual and conversational, such as He’s off his head, i.e. crazy. There are also neutralA way of speaking or writing that is neither formal nor informal, but in between. This type of language is appropriate for most situations; e.g. When you meet someone in a formal situation you say, ‘How do you do’ or ‘Hello’. In an informal situation you say ‘… click to keep open · see glossary exponents which we use when we want to show neither great respect nor too much casualness towards the person we are talking to. They fall between formal and informal. ‘Why don’t you come for lunch with us?’ is an example of a neutral exponent.

People usually choose to use the level of formality that suits a situation. This is called appropriacyLanguage which is suitable in a particular situation; e.g. it might be appropriate to say Hi in one situation but Good morning in another. See inappropriate, formal language, informal language, register. click to keep open · see glossary. A teacher greeting her class could choose to say ‘I’d like to wish you all a very good morning’ or ‘Hi, guys!’. Both of these are likely to be inappropriateLanguage which is not suitable in a particular situation; e.g. it is inappropriate to say Open the door, will you? to a stranger; it would be more appropriate to say: Would you mind opening the door, please? See appropriacy and register. click to keep open · see glossary (unsuitable) in many classroom situations, the first because it is too formal and the second because it is too informal. It would probably be appropriateLanguage which is suitable in a particular situation; e.g. it might be appropriate to say Hi in one situation but Good morning in another. See inappropriate, formal language, informal language, register. click to keep open · see glossary (suitable) for the teacher to say ‘Good morning, everyone’ or something similar. Of course, we sometimes use inappropriate language on purpose to create some effect, e.g. a shop assistant using great formality with a customer may be signalling that he would like the customer to leave. Language that reflects the situation in which it is used is often referred to as registerThe formality or informality of language used in a particular situation. Formal register or formal language is language which is used in serious or important situations, e.g. in a job application. Informal register or informal language is language used in rela… click to keep open · see glossary. ‘Hi’ is an example of informal register, ‘A very good morning to you’ an example of formal register.

◆Key concepts and the language teaching classroom

Read these tips and tick the ones which are most important for you:

• Coursebooks in the 1980s and 1990s were often organised around functions. Each new unit focused on a new function, e.g. Unit 1 Expressing likes and dislikes, Unit 2 Making suggestions, Unit 3 Agreeing and disagreeing. These books were based on the Functional Approach (see Unit 15).
• A focus on functions in the classroom can lead to an emphasisWhen special force or attention is given to a word or information because it is important, e.g. I want to start the lesson at SIX o’clock, not seven o’clock. click to keep open · see glossary on communication and learning language in chunksAny pair or group of words commonly found together or near one another, e.g. phrasal verbs (get on), idioms (it drives me crazy), collocations (make the bed), fixed expressions (How do you do?). See lexical unit. click to keep open · see glossary.
• Writing is sometimes taught through functions, e.g. when learning to write letters of complaint, learners can learn exponents for greeting, explaining your reason for writing, describing your complaint, asking for satisfaction, signing off.
• Nowadays, we usually find functions taught together with the structures they contain so that learners do not become confused by meeting a wide range of grammatical patterns together at the same time. We can see this in the extractPart of a text which is removed from an original, longer text. Newspaper articles can be very long, so teachers sometimes choose just a few of the paragraphs from an article for learners to read in class. This gives learners practice in reading extracts from a… click to keep open · see glossary from a map of a coursebook below. In the third column a grammatical structure is given together with exponents of the function ‘Expressing likes’ which are expressed through this structure.

  Unit	Functions	Grammar
  Unit 6	Expressing likes	First and third person present simple affirmative: like …, he/she likes …
  Unit 7	Expressing dislikes	First and third person present simple negative: don’t like …, he/she doesn’t like …

• Combining functions and grammar helps to give grammar meaning and context. It also helps learners to learn functions together with grammatical structures that they can then transfer to other contexts for use.

✎Follow-up activity

💡Reflect

🔍Discovery activities

✎TKT practice tasks

These multiple-choice tasks are exactly as in the book, but interactive: pick your answers, check your score, and retry anytime. The scoring uses the official answer key from the back of the book.

📖Glossary terms in this unit

Key terms highlighted in this unit — study them on the flashcards page.